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Astronomy
 Muslims have always had a special interest in astronomy. The moon
and the sun are of vital importance in the daily life of every Muslim. By
the moon, Muslims determine the beginning and the end of the months in
their lunar calendar. By the sun the Muslims calculate the times for
prayer and fasting. It is also by means of astronomy that Muslims can
determine the precise direction of the Qiblah, to face the Ka'bah in
Makkah, during prayer. The most precise solar calendar, superior to the
Julian, is the Jilali, devised under the supervision of Umar
Khayyam.
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The Qur'an contains many references
to astronomy.
"The heavens and the earth were ordered rightly, and were made
subservient to man, including the sun, the moon, the stars, and day and
night. Every heavenly body moves in an orbit assigned to it by God and
never digresses, making the universe an orderly cosmos whose life and
existence, diminution and expansion, are totally determined by the
Creator." [Qur'an 30:22]
These references, and the injunctions to learn, inspired the early
Muslim scholars to study the heavens. They integrated the earlier works of
the Indians, Persians and Greeks into a new synthesis.
Ptolemy's Almagest (the title as we know it today is actually Arabic)
was translated, studied and criticized. Many new stars were discovered, as
we see in their Arabic names - Algol, Deneb, Betelgeuse, Rigel, Aldebaran.
Astronomical tables were compiled, among them the Toledan tables, which
were used by Copernicus, Tycho Brahe and Kepler.
Also compiled were almanacs - another Arabic term. Other terms from
Arabic are zenith, nadir, Aledo, azimuth.
Muslim astronomers were the first to establish observatories, like
the one built at Mugharah by Hulagu, the son of Genghis Khan, in Persia,
and they invented instruments such as the quadrant and astrolabe, which
led to advances not only in astronomy but in oceanic navigation,
contributing to the European age of exploration.
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Geography
Muslim scholars paid
great attention to geography. In fact, the Muslims' great concern for geography originated with their
religion.
The Qur'an encourages
people to travel throughout the earth to see God's signs and patterns
everywhere. Islam also requires each Muslim to have at least enough
knowledge of geography to know the direction of the Qiblah (the position
of the Ka'bah in Makkah) in order to pray five times a
day. |
Muslims were also
used to taking long journeys to conduct trade as well as to make the Hajj
and spread their religion. The far-flung Islamic empire enabled
scholar-explorers to compile large amounts of geographical and climatic
information from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
Among the most famous names in the field of geography, even in the
West, are Ibn Khaldun and Ibn Batuta, renowned for their written accounts
of their extensive explorations.
In 1166, Al-Idrisi, the well-known Muslim scholar who served the
Sicilian court, produced very accurate maps, including a world map with
all the continents and their mountains, rivers and famous cities.
Al-Muqdishi was the first geographer to produce accurate maps in color.
Spain was ruled by Muslims under the banner of Islam for over 700
years. By the 15th century of the Gregorian calendar the rulership of
Islam had been seated in Spain and Muslims had established centers of
learning which commanded respect all over the known world at that time.
There were no "Dark Ages" such the rest of Europe experienced for the
Muslims in Spain and those who lived there with them. In January of 1492
Muslim Spain capitulated to Catholic Rome under King Ferdinand and Queen
Isabella. By July of the same year, Muslims were instrumental in helping
navigate Christopher Colombus to the Carribean South of Florida.
It was, moreover, with the help of Muslim navigators and their
inventions that Magellan was able to traverse the Cape of Good Hope, and
Da Gamma and Columbus had Muslim navigators on board their ships.
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Humanity
Seeking knowledge is
obligatory in Islam for every Muslim, man and woman. The main sources of
Islam, the Qur'an and the Sunnah (Prophet Muhammad's traditions),
encourage Muslims to seek knowledge and be scholars, since this is the
best way for people to know Allah (God), to appreciate His wondrous
creations and be thankful for them. |
Muslims have always been eager to seek knowledge, both religious and
secular, and within a few years of Muhammad's mission, a great
civilization sprang up and flourished. The outcome is shown in the spread
of Islamic universities; Al-Zaytunah in Tunis, and Al-Azhar in Cairo go
back more than 1,000 years and are the oldest existing universities in the
world. Indeed, they were the models for the first European universities,
such as Bologna, Heidelberg, and the Sorbonne. Even the familiar academic
cap and gown originated at Al-Azhar University.
Muslims made great advances in many different fields, such as
geography, physics, chemistry, mathematics, medicine, pharmacology,
architecture, linguistics and astronomy. Algebra and the Arabic numerals
were introduced to the world by Muslim scholars. The astrolabe, the
quadrant, and other navigational devices and maps were developed by Muslim
scholars and played an important role in world progress, most notably in
Europe's age of exploration.
Muslim scholars studied the ancient civilizations from Greece and Rome
to China and India. The works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Euclid and others
were translated into Arabic. Muslim scholars and scientists then added
their own creative ideas, discoveries and inventions, and finally
transmitted this new knowledge to Europe, leading directly to the
Renaissance. Many scientific and medical treatises, having been translated
into Latin, were standard text and reference books as late as the 17th and
18th centuries. |
Mathematics
Muslim mathematicians
excelled in geometry, as can be seen in their graphic arts, and it was the
great Al-Biruni (who excelled also in the fields of natural history, even
geology and mineralogy) who established trigonometry as a distinct branch
of mathematics. Other Muslim mathematicians made significant progress in
number theory. |
It is interesting to note that Islam so strongly urges mankind to study
and explore the universe. For example, the Holy Qur'an states:
"We (Allah)
will show you (mankind) Our signs/patterns in the horizons/universe and
in yourselves until you are convinced that the revelation is the
truth." [Qur'an, 41:53] This invitation to explore and
search made Muslims interested in astronomy, mathematics, chemistry, and
the other sciences, and they had a very clear and firm understanding of
the correspondences among geometry, mathematics, and astronomy.
The Muslims invented the symbol for zero (The word "cipher" comes from
Arabic sifr), and they organized the numbers into the decimal system -
base 10. Additionally, they invented the symbol to express an unknown
quantity, i.e. variables like x.
The first great Muslim mathematician, Al-Khawarizmi, invented the
subject of algebra (al-Jabr), which was further developed by others, most
notably Umar Khayyam. Al-Khawarizmi's work, in Latin translation, brought
the Arabic numerals along with the mathematics to Europe, through Spain.
The word "algorithm" is derived from his name. |
Medicine
In Islam, the human
body is a source of appreciation, as it is created by Almighty Allah
(God). How it functions, how to keep it clean and safe, how to prevent
diseases from attacking it or cure those diseases, have been important
issues for Muslims.
Ibn Sina (d. 1037), better known to
the West as Avicenna, was perhaps the greatest physician until the modern
era. His famous book, Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb, remained a standard textbook
even in Europe, for over 700 years. Ibn Sina's work is still studied and
built upon in the East. |
Prophet Muhammad himself urged people to "take medicines for your
diseases", as people at that time were reluctant to do so. He also
said,
"God created no illness, except
that He has established for it a cure, except for old age. When the
antidote is applied, the patient will recover with the permission of
God." This was strong motivation to
encourage Muslim scientists to explore, develop, and apply empirical laws.
Much attention was given to medicine and public health care. The first
hospital was built in Baghdad in 706 AC. The Muslims also used camel
caravans as mobile hospitals, which moved from place to place.
Since the religion did not forbid it, Muslim scholars used human
cadavers to study anatomy and physiology and to help their students
understand how the body functions. This empirical study enabled surgery to
develop very quickly.
Al-Razi, known in the West as Rhazes, the famous physician and
scientist, (d. 932) was one of the greatest physicians in the world in the
Middle Ages. He stressed empirical observation and clinical medicine and
was unrivalled as a diagnostician. He also wrote a treatise on hygiene in
hospitals. Kahaf Abul-Qasim Al-Sahabi was a very famous surgeon in the
eleventh century, known in Europe for his work, Concessio (Kitab
al-Tasrif).
Other significant contributions were made in pharmacology, such as Ibn
Sina's Kitab al-Shifa' (Book of Healing), and in public health. Every
major city in the Islamic world had a number of excellent hospitals, some
of them teaching hospitals, and many of them were specialized for
particular diseases, including mental and emotional. The Ottomans were
particularly noted for their building of hospitals and for the high level
of hygiene practiced in them. |
